Study: Light Enhances Brain Activity During Cognitive Task Even In Blind People

After spending the last few weeks learning all about the wonders of neurophysiology, I found this article quite intriguing (and a little spooky, which seems particularly appropriate for tonight). We have learned that our bodies work differently based upon the time of day, following biorhythms, in order to optimize performance. A major factor in determining the time of day is the light we perceive, brightness corresponding to day, darkness to night. Following this logic, light is thought to contribute to cognition, helping us to think better when we are awake than when we are asleep. While this is all well and good for those of us blessed with the gift of sight, scientists set out to study the impact of light on the blind. Surprisingly, they found that 3 completely blind individuals seemed to be able to sense light and showed improved cognitive function in the presence of light. The group was able to determine when a light was on, despite not being able to consciously see it, at a greater rate than if they were to simply guess. They also showed increased cognitive function when performing memory related tasks in the presence of a blue light, again despite not being able to see it consciously. Scientist believe this supports the theory of the presence of a default network, which is thought to be unconsciously and continuously scanning our surrounding.  

http://www.news-medical.net/news/20131029/Study-Light-enhances-brain-activity-during-cognitive-task-even-in-blind-people.aspx?page=2

Miniature Organs used for drug testing

Tiny organs printed in 3D aim for "body on a chip" for better test results

In hopes to design a more efficient drug testing method, the Wakeforest Institute for Regenerative Medicine has developed a "body on a chip". They use 3D printers to make miniature organs, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys and blood vessels. These miniature organs are essentially chucks of their respective organ, kept alive by a blood subsitute on a 2 by 5in chip.  Although they are not functional, they allow researches to see the affects of diseases or medicines. The sensors on the chip will measure and keep track of temperature, oxygen levels and pH. Without having to do human or animal testing, the 'body on a chip' allows drug manufacturers to see how an entire body system would respond to a drug or other chemical agent.

Being able to develop a miniature body system, is truly astounding. Hopefully this method will be refined and can be used as the future of defense against biological warfare.

http://www.nbcnews.com/technology/tiny-organs-printed-3-d-aim-body-chip-better-drug-8C11170018

Spinal Stimulation Gets Paralyzed Patients Moving

This article talks about a guy who had a car accident and was unable to move at the beginning. Then he recuperated the movement of his arms but was bounded to a wheelchair because he was paralyzed from the chest down. They used electrical stimulation with the hope of restoring the signals in his spinal cord. The impressive thing was that just within the first day he was able to stand up with just a little help. Then he started to gain control of other organs and they remained that way even when they were not stimulating his spinal cord.

I found this article really interesting because not a lot of people have hope when they become paralyzed. Technology just keeps increasing and this shows us how a person's life can be changed completely using biomedical engineering.

 You can get access to this article by using this link: http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/spinal-stimulation-gets-paralyzed-patients-moving

Bacteria and Fat: A 'Perfect Storm' for Inflammation

          In this article, scientists from the University of Iowa studied how the interaction between bacteria and fat cells might contribute to diabetes. They experimented this through "immortalizing" fat cells. A normal human body's reaction to an infection or injury is inflammation, which is the connection between fat, bacteria, and diabetes. This occurs because fat cells, or adipocytes, interact with bacterial toxins, which trigger a chronic inflammatory process. This leads to insulin resistance which leads to diabetes. By immortalizing the fat cells, the bacterial toxins would stimulate the adipocytes to release cytokines, which promote inflammation. This builds up continuously dividing, identical cells that can be used for experimentation. In contrast, the primary fat cells, directly taken from fat tissue, quickly stop dividing and can't be used for repeated experiments. 

          The immature precursor fat cells were immortalized by adding in two genes from HPV (the virus that causes cervical cancer). This was added to an exzyme that controls the length of cells' telomeres, which protect chromosome tips on DNA from deterioration. This new experimental "tool" will allow researchers to "investigate the mechanisms of the inflammation and allow [them] to test ways to potentially inhibit the response".

          I found this article very interesting because my Grandfather has diabetes and I'm glad to see that they are finding new ways to investigate and cure diabetes. This method of immortalizing fat cells is very innovative and has a very promising future. Focusing on E. coli and Staphylococcus areus (staph) bacteria allows them to tackle diabetes and obesity, both of which are conditions that affect many Americans today. By promoting chronic inflammation, the staph superantigens may play a role in the development of diabetes. The inflammation would hinder the wound healing in diabetic foot ulcers, which an issue that affects 15-20% of people, including my Grandfather, with diabetes.


http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131030185153.htm

Coming Soon: Most Powerful MRI

This new super powerful MRI would increase the resolution of a current MRI by 10 times! The possibilities of learning more about the brain are endless with 10 times more resolution. One main issue in the making of this new MRI was deciding what material to use in the wiring of the coil. The team went with wire produced by Luvata over niobium-tin which is very brittle. They will have three coils, a large one and two smaller ones. This will create the necessary opposing electric fields. The electromagnet will be cooled by helium.

http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/imaging/the-worlds-most-powerful-mri-takes-shape

Blind People React to Light

            Recent studies by the University of Montreal and the Brigham and Women’s hospital in Boston have shown that people who are completely blind can be influenced by light. The presence or absence of light affects bodily functions such as heart rate, attentiveness, mood, and reflexes. An experiment was conducted where blind people were exposed to a blue light, the light was turned on and off, and the participants were asked whether the light was on or off. The results were surprisingly positive. Aside from chance, it can be explained by light perception in the ganglion cells of the retina, which are different from the cells that process light for sight.

            The next part of the experiment was to have the participants match sounds with lights on and off to test their attentiveness. Even though they can not visually see the light, they were more attentive to the sounds when the light was shining into their eyes. They did this experiment while the participants were having a brain scan with a functional MRI (fMRI) to quantitatively measure their alertness, memory, and cognition recognition. The task of matching sounds was completed more efficiently when light was present.

            The conclusion is that to perceive light, even without converting it to images, is accomplished in order to pay attention and monitor the environment. This article is interesting because it can explain why cognitive performance is improved in the presence of light and leads us to wonder what else can be done to improve such performance.

http://www.iflscience.com/brain/completely-blind-people-still-able-react-light

Apoptosis of HIV virus (PLOSONE)

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0074414;jsessionid=B91111EA9FA2C951C8BA972F703EFAA5 


  Apoptosis, as we all know by now is the programmed cell death, and diseases such as HIV avoid this natural phenomena which is one of the reasons why HIV is very difficult to eradicate.  Now a days, scientists claim that apoptosis can be induced in  the HIV virus by "interfering" with the HIV-1 gene expression.  Commonly used chemicals such as the topical anti fungal, ciclopirox and the iron chelator, deferiprone affect apoptosis in HIV infected H9 cells.  Both medicines activated apoptosis in HIV infected cells in the body, which will slow down HIV spreading further.  Both medicines enhanced the mitochondrial membrane depolarization which initiates the intrinsic pathway that induces apoptosis. Caspase-3 activation, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase proteolysis, DNA degradation, and apoptotic cell morphology are evidence that apoptosis is induced and is executed.  Also, no viral re-emergence was observed 12 weeks after the drug was done being administered which is evidence that the virus was eliminated from the host's DNA.  Tests in mice given the ciclopirox didn't show any tissue damage.   The results of many experiments showed that the mice given either the ciclopirox or the deferiprone had preferential treatment in the way they induced apoptosis in the cells,  The hosts given the medications caused apoptosis to occur in the HIV infected cells first.  Scientists hypothesize that the drugs act as anti-retrovirals due to the fact that they inhibit hydroxylation of cellular proteins heavily involved apoptosis.  Scientists are also claiming that these drugs are cytocidal due to the fact that they eliminate viral activity by destroying infected cells.  I believe that this is a very effective, pragmatic way to limit the spread of HIV due to the fact that HIV is constantly changing its outer proteins which makes it very hard to track down and eliminate, and is definitely worth test trials in humans.

Can Preference for Background Music Mediate the Irrelevant Sound Effect?

While some studies have shown that listening to music before performing a task can have positive results on cognitive performance, this study was designed to determine the effects that simultaneously listening to music and performing a task would have.  Also, the study utilized different types of sounds or styles of music can have, as it was believed that not all would produce the same results.  Interestingly, the study found that almost all types of music distracted the participants to some degree, leaving the control group in silence with the best results.  However, participants did not believe that their performance was hampered by the music styles that showed lesser results.  The steady-state speech sound (acoustic type music without lyrics) was the only type of music that was not distracting, and had results similar to being in silence.  While the results of this study should be examined further, they are significant, showing that any speech in song can distract the listener from his or her task.

I was interested in researching this topic as my younger sister is conducting a small scale study on this topic for her 7th grade science fair topic.  I also found it interesting as many college students, myself included, often listen to music while studying.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/acp.1731/asset/acp1731.pdf;jsessionid=0B987ECCF01EB985A342F44A2261DB29.f03t03?v=1&t=hngsm093&s=f0f96bcdf24d59d183883e5646e7d2429020ee07

PET Scans Show Link Between Lack of Sleep and Alzheimer's.

Getting your daily dose of sleep, or staying up on too many saturday nights may have lasting consequences. A new study has linked the beta-amyloid accumulation, a protein typical in Alzheimers patients, and diminished sleep. The study saw the correlation in adults of mean age 78.2, and advised possible future sleep interventions in the treatment of Alzheimers.

PiB-PET link lack of Sleep to Alzheimers

Bionic prosthetics ability to feel!

If upper-limb amputee was able to obtain a bionic prosthetic that they could control with their mind, and re-obtain the ability to have dexterity, one would ask how any if this could go wrong? Well, one problem does present that these patients once again have the ability to control a limb and manipulate it, but they cannot feel what they are doing presumably required for the fine motor skills.   This article addresses these issues with bionic prosthetics. Scientists have now discovered how to attach the left over sensory nerve fibers to  tell the patient how hard or light the pressure they are applying is, which is  being given by the sensory, pressure, and temperature receptors of the prosthetic.

Currently, the prosthetic is being tested on animals, but there is hope for a version for human amputees to try out the device soon!  Patients have exclaimed their excitement about hugging their children with both hands and actually being able to feel it!  The University of Michigan is excited about the upcoming improvements of the limb.


http://www.wndu.com/mmm/headlines/90387464.html?device=phone

Topiramate Shows Promise as a Possible Medication for Cocaine Dependence

Recently research done on the drug, topiramate, has revealed that it may be a reliable medication for the treatment of cocaine dependency. The drug is already approved by the FDA and is currently used to treat epilepsy and migraine headaches. At the moment there are no FDA-approved medications for cocaine addiction so the fact that topiramate is already an approved substance is very important.

Cocaine can be a very harmful substance as it can cause damage to the brain, heart, lungs, and vasculature. It is also responsible for more U.S. emergency room visits than any other illegal drug. It has also been found by one researcher that topiramate is a safe and effective treatment for alcohol dependence. This may be a good indication that topiramate could be effective against many types of addictions and not be limited to just alcohol and cocaine.

In a double blind study, it was found that topiramate was effective in increasing the likelihood of a subject not using cocaine each day and increasing the likelihood that subjects would make it through an entire week without using cocaine. Some side effects were observed that included skin sensations, anorexia, and difficulty concentrating. There are some risks with higher doses of the drug including an increased chance of developing glaucoma.

Topiramate causes dual neurotransmitter modulation; it augments the inhibitory action of gamma amino butyric acid and inhibits the excitatory effects of glutamate. The success of topiramate aids in our understanding of how addiction and dependence work at the biological level.

I thought this article was worth sharing because I’ve recently been doing much research on cocaine dependency for my device design project and it has come to my attention how much damage drug addiction can actually do and also how much we still don’t know about the addictive process. These two combined indicate that further research into the area would serve a large purpose in aiding society.

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-10/uomm-nss102513.php

Epigenetics Targets May Enable Discovery of Novel Drugs

The relevance of chemistry to physiology (as well as to every other field of science) is fascinating. The body depends so much on proper chemistry, and a single molecule, atom, or even electron out of place has the potential to do massive harm. Of course, many drugs are created to meet the body's need for appropriate chemistry, but even well-developed and approved drugs have side effects as they cannot truly replicate or maintain the exact chemistry of an ideal biological specimen. The chemical world of physiology is, in my opinion, what makes the study of life both wildly interesting and incredibly complex.

The epigenome is made up of the chemical compounds, such as methyl or acetyl groups, that are attached to the DNA and help to regulate the activity of genes. Abnormal epigenetic changes have an effect on gene transcription in the development of cancer. The epigenome is also associated with "cellular memory" because it carries on heritable gene expression patterns, which are necessary both for cells to give rise only to a specific type of cell and for tumor progression. The reversibility of epigenetic changes brings up the possibility of targeting the epigenome as a means of cancer therapy.

Some cancer cells exhibit an over representation of histone deacetylases (HDACs) which remove acetyl groups from chromatin. Hypoacetylation of histones allows for a condensed chromatin structure and repression of gene transcription. HDAC inhibitors result in hyperacetylation, and this has been shown to cause cell cycle arrest and cancer cell apoptosis.

While many current HDAC inhibitors lack selectivity among the family of HDAC proteins, several have been approved by the FDA. Other drugs currently on trial are aimed at selectively inhibiting single HDAC enzyme isomers. Acetylon's oral ACY-1215 selectively inhibits the extranuclear HDAC6 enzyme and is being tested in combination with other drugs for the treatment of multiple myeloma. These trials have shown "no dose limiting toxicities or severe adverse events" as with nonselective HDAC inhibitor, but the success of epigenetic drug targets is unfortunately diminished by its chemotherapy-like side effects.

Another promising HDAC inhibitor undergoing clinical trials is Syndax's entinostat, which modulates the development of drug tolerance by targeting reversible epigenetic changes in tumors of both metastatic breast cancer and non-small cell lung cancer.

http://www.genengnews.com/insight-and-intelligence/epigenetics-targets-may-enable-discovery-of-novel-drugs/77899928/

Rheumatoid Arthritis Increases Deadly Blood Clot Risk

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a form of inflammatory disease and an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the nontrivial membrane, hence, damages the cartilage and bone at joint. According to new research from Taiwan, rheumatoid arthritis also increases the risk of developing potentially fatal blood clots in the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and lungs (pulmonary thromboembolism).

There are three primary reasons for this joint disease to cause blood clots. The first one is that by damaging the joint, RA limits the muscular movement which helps push the blood flow in the circulatory system. The second reason is the inflammatory proteins that circulate in the blood of RA patients not only damage the joint but also potentially damage blood vessels. The last reason is that higher levels of C-reactive protein in RA patient contribute to increase the blood’s viscosity (resistance to flow).

I wanted to read this article because I just did my student lecture presentation about rheumatoid arthritis and figured out that there are still a lot of mysteries about this disease. Also, this article enhances the idea that our body's parts are strictly connective to one another. If you get problems in one part, it can also affects other parts of body, just like rheumatoid arthritis is a joint disease but it can potentially cause blood clots in legs and lungs. 

http://www.bottomlinepublications.com/content/article/health-a-healing/rheumatoid-arthritis-increases-deadly-blood-clot-risk

Electronic Tattoos Can Deliver Real-Time Vital Sign Measurements

Anyone who has ever been in a hospital knows about multitudes or machines and wires it can take to monitor  a patient's condition. They can look more like a machine than a human! Science has found a solution for this predicament with a technology in the form of electronic tattoos.

Electronic tattoos are not actually ink of course. They consist of thin, flexible circuits, sensors and transmitters that can be less than a square inch in size. These tiny wires can provide doctors with real-time information about temperature, heart rate and many more measurements of vital signs. Critical information that used to take a room full of machines could be reduced to a small "tattoo" like structures.

Scientists and researchers have already planned many uses for these devices. There are many people who can't control their body temperature so the electronic tattoo could provide a constant and extremely accurate measurement of their body heat for them. Another application is the monitoring of newborns. Newborns in the NICU have so many machines that cover their small bodies and fragile skin. This introduces a problem because infants need human contact to develop a sense of security. Electronic tattoos provide a solution for them. These machines can also monitor the brain of the baby, providing insight developing cognitive and motor function.

I wanted to introduce this article because this technology is fantastic. The technology will not only help a patient physically, but also emotionally and psychologically.  My cousin was recently in the hospital.  She was covered by so many machines that we could barely see her. Having a monitoring system this small could have provided her with a less restrictions to move around, make her less self conscious about her appearance, and given our family with a degree of comfort.

To read more:
http://www.theverge.com/2013/9/15/4724528/ultrathin-wearable-thermometer-watches-heat-move-through-bloodhttp://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/feature/hugs_from_mom_and_dad_without_the_wires/

Making artificial organs

http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323699704578328251335196648

Recently, there's been more research into artificially making internal organs due to an increased demand for transplants. In the past few years, some organs have already been created, but these are mostly either cosmetic or easy to manufacture.  Among these artificial organs that have already been created are noses and ears made out of fat tissue of a patient that have been grown on a scaffold.  However, these organs don't have any of skin tissue covering the fatty layer, so these structures are inserted into the patient under the skin so that epithelial tissue will naturally sheath the appendage.

The next hope of many researchers is the creation of an artificial heart.  Already, rat hearts have been created by using a scaffold made from another rat heart and some tissue to create a functional organ that can be inserted back into the animal.  The same thinking is being used to make heart scaffolds that can possibly be used to create a living, functional heart to help patients in need of a heart transplant.  When stem cells are placed on the scaffold in surroundings similar to an embryo, the cells seem to "know" where they need to be and in what order they need to do in to make a functioning organ.  Hopefully, this research can yield results of a working human heart within the next 5 years, though it will most likely be another 5 after that before these organs are actively transplanted into humans due to safety checks.

This is really cool technology, and it has a special place in my heart because on both sides of my family, there have been multiple problems with the heart and organs that have had to be removed, so with this new technology, when it comes time for my organs to fail like my ancestors, hopefully there will be something to take it's place.

'Minicomputers' Live Inside the Human Brain

A recent study has shown that neurophysiology may be even more complicated than previously thought. Researchers from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine have found evidence that dendrites are not simple wiring, but in fact function as “minicomputers”. More specifically, they work to interpret and sort the massive amount of information sent to the neurons. The researchers were able to measure the electrical signals of individual dendrites in the brains of mice. This is a technical accomplishment in itself, but what they observed when the mice were subjected to different visual stimuli is even more impressive. The researchers recorded dynamic spikes of electrical activity in the dendrites that had bursts and plateaus that were both unique in composition and in occurrence to the electrical activity of their associative axons.

This study demonstrates how dynamically our understanding of physiology is changing. It reminds us that there are still many aspects of this field yet to be understood, and the prospect of biomechanical research is extremely promising. Perhaps most importantly, it shows that our neurophysiology test could have been a lot worse.

Source: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12600.html

Nanosponges Soak Up Toxins

Bioengineers at the University of California at San Diego have synthesized a ‘nanosponge,’ which is responsible for removing some of the most harmful toxins that can affect our bodies.Some of these toxins include MRSA, which is responsible for several difficult- to- treat infections. Some of these infections are resistant strains of already known infections we are aware of. Other toxins that the nanosponge absorbs are E.coli, poisonous snakes, and bees.  At the molecular level, these toxins damage the cell membranes of cells by poking holes. The nanosponges adequately absorb different pore-forming toxins regardless of their structure. Before, anti-toxins had to be synthesized according to specific toxin structures.

The way these nanosponges were synthesized was to wrap the nanosponges in red blood cell membranes in order to invade the immune system, and thereby, reach the bloodstream. In further detail, the nanosponges are 85 nanometers and are made of a biocompatible polymer wrapped in red blood cell membranes. The red blood cell membranes are retrieved by centrifuging a small blood sample and put the cells in a solution. In addition, according to the laws of diffusion, the red blood cells burst, releasing hemoglobin and RBC skins behind.  By encasing the nanosponge with red blood cell membranes, the toxins are diverted from their actual red blood cell targets and thus, the toxins are absorbed by the nanosponges. In rats, the nanosponges had a half-life of 40 hours and eventually the liver safely metabolized the nanosponge and the toxins, without harming the liver in any manner.

The reason why this method is efficacious is because one red blood cell membrane can make thousands of nanosponges because the size of nanosponges is significantly smaller compared to a RBC (3000 times smaller).  With just a single dose, thousands of nanosponges can invade the bloodstream, which outnumbers RBC’s and intercepts the toxins.

Researchers are now hoping to start clinical trials.

The reason why I found this article very interesting is because many of us has probably faced the reality that many drugs taken for infections eventually become resistant. The bacteria are even harder to remove and sometimes, new strains of an infection become prevalent that pharmaceutical companies have not yet synthesized. I think these nanosponges can be a great alternative to many drugs because these do not require specificity and targets various toxins.

http://bioengineer.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=356:nanosponges-soak-up-toxins-released-by-bacterial-infections-and-venom&catid=89:news&Itemid=494

Gaining an Insight into Language Formation

A recent discovery of a gene, SRPX2, has sparked a study conducted by researchers at Johns Hopkins. The gene appears to play a part in language ability as well as formation of synapses in the brain. This discovery adds to the scientific understanding of how language is developed throughout the brain and also the processes that are involved with synaptic formation.

When a group of mice were injected with an SRPX2-blocking compound, the mice showed fewer formed synapses. Also, when mice pups that had been injected with this compound were separated from their mothers, they failed to emit a high-pitched distress call that other pups commonly do. This was a fair indication that these mice pups lacked early language ability.

Another research group has shown that SRPX2 interacts with FoxP2, a gene that is famous for its apparent role in language ability. FoxP2 is involved in other functions besides language ability, but SRPX2 appears to be more specialized to language ability.

This discovery is interesting because language formation is one of the areas of human physiology that is less studied and not completely understood, like many other functions of our central nervous system. With the discovery of genes such as SRPX2, we can begin to unravel the mystery behind these functions and may possibly be able to gain more insight on how our nervous system works as a whole.

Article: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131031142655.htm

Sympathetic CGM (Continuous Glucose Monitoring) System

     A company in Philadelphia (Echo Therapeutics) is currently developing a non-invasive continuous glucose monitor. This will remove the need to prick oneself to determine glucose levels. The system uses a trans-dermal sensor that is placed close enough to the blood vessels so that it is capable of reading the glucose levels while still outside of the skin. The area of skin is prepped by a device, basically a smart razor, that shaves off the top layer of dead skin. The razor senses hydration levels in the skin and cuts until it reaches a level of about 80% hydration which is where the "live skin layer" is. The sensor is then placed on the prepped area and after an initial warming up phase it begins wireless transmitting data on glucose levels. There are built in alarms and on screen outputs so that the patient may monitor their levels and be alarmed if the glucose moves out of a programmed range.
     This article interested me because our device design team ran into the problem of monitoring glutamate levels in the blood, which we had ultimately decided to just use a device similar to the finger prick used by diabetics. This device on the other hand would be more appeasing to patients because it would remove the need to stab yourself every time you needed to check your levels. Which also removes the risks involved with constantly using a needle such as infection, inflammation, or bleeding and in general most people would prefer to not have the pinch of being pricked all the time. The device also continuously monitors the glucose levels in the body with real time feedback so the patient would know immediately any time of day or night when their glucose levels fell out of the desired range, rather than only knowing when they check it. The article also goes on to mention other medical uses for the device that do not pertain to just diabetics. Such as in surgeries where a patients glucose levels can also spike. With medical facilities are moving more and more towards non-invasive technology and procedures, this device is just the next step.




This is the link to the company's page with the product description:
http://www.echotx.com/symphony-cgm-system.shtml

This is the article that discusses the product and goes into the pros and cons:
http://asweetlife.org/feature/a-non-invasive-cgm-explained-echo-therapeutics-symphony/

This article discusses the skin prep device:
http://www.imedicalapps.com/2012/01/echo-therapeutics-announces-positive-clinical-trial-results-symphony-transdermal-cgm-system/

The Effects of Pore Size in Bilyared Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) Scaffolds on Restoring Osteochondral Defects in Rabbits

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23637068

In repairing osteochondral defects, it is important to consider pore size as a determinant of cell proliferation and ultimate tissue growth. Bi-layered scaffolds are especially attractive to regeneration of injury to the osteochondral interface due to its enhanced ability to better mimic both articular cartilage and subchondral bone. In this study, bi-layered porous scaffolds were fabricated, in which only porosity was modulated in each layer, and implanted into the medial condyle of rabbits. Duan et al found that pore sizes ranging from 100-200 microns in the chondral layer, and 300-450 microns in the osseus layer generated the best results- better overall tissue regeneration and integration with the graft site.

This aspect of biomedical engineering, that is, investigating the effects of scaffold properties on cell behavior, is an important aspect in the development of novel regenerative techniques. Rather than using other therapies such as micropicking and osteochondral autograft transfer systems which have variable success, the use of an engineered scaffold seeded with autologous cells holds great promise as a more viable treatment of tissue degeneration.

A Potential New Class of Fast Acting Antidepressants

This article introduces the problem with antidepressants on the market today: they are too slow. For some patients, current antidepressants take months to alleviate their symptoms. The only two drugs that do display rapid onset (ketamine and scopolamine) are still unsuitable for human use. According to the article, Dr. Stephanie Dulawa and her team at the University of Chicago found the subtype serotonin receptor, serotonin 2C, that stood out among other serotonin receptors as significantly reducing “depression-like” behaviors. These serotonin 2C receptors normally inhibit the release of dopamine, and when blocked, dopamine is free to be released into brain. The articles notes a brain area called the prefrontal cortex. These receptors were selectively blocked in mice, and their symptoms were reduced in only five days as compared to a two week minimum control group. Her team only started taking measurements after five days, but they believe that the effects could have been sooner. Selectively targeting these receptors suggests a potentially safer alternative to current antidepressants.

Again, this article is relevant to my device design project to treat depression that I am currently working on. The real important implication of this discovery is the identification of a more acute target to focus treatment on. Interestingly enough, this approach is focused on the receptor that stops the release dopamine and blocking the inhibition, instead of anti-depressants that usually block the reuptake of serotonin. I like that this process also alleviates symptoms, something I did not know before reading the article. While the medication for this is still undergoing development, I am curious to what technique they utilized to initially block only these receptors in mice. Perhaps, this method can be developed into a nanobot!

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131029090347.htm

Utilization of Stem Cells to Grow Beating Heart

Scientists have confirmed what could be incredible progress in tissue engineering and generating organs. Through the use of stem cells, or more specifically induced pluripotent stem cells, these scientists were able to grow heart muscle tissue. How did they do it?  Induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells, are regular cells that are programmed back into a stem cell state which, in turn, allows re-designation to develop into any type of cell. The iPS cells were then prompted to become heart precursor cells.

By forming a scaffold and allowing heart precursor cells to adhere and grow, the cells slowly developed. Overtime the cells then generated heart muscle and after 20 days of supplying blood the newly formed tissue began to have steady heart rate of around 40 to 50 beats per minute. However, senior researcher Lei Yang notes,” It is still far from making a whole human heart” as the heart tissue does not contract strongly enough nor simulates the electrical system like that of a whole heart. There is optimism. The scientists hope with their research that tissue damaged in the heart could later be replaced or, with even more research, can provide an entirely reconstructed heart for patients who need it.

This article grabbed my attention due to its possible applications and the progress that has been made into doing something like growing a heart. In addition, millions of peoples’ lives are affected by heart diseases and millions of those people die from it. With this approach, it could be possible to save lives and help patients with heart ailments to recovery.

http://news.discovery.com/tech/biotechnology/stem-cells-grow-beating-heart-130814.htm

Using an iPhone app to develop new drugs

Students at Rice University have recently designed an iPhone app that allows for an easier method of testing drug toxicity levels. They did this using a specials kind of bioassay. A bioassay is a process used to determine the potency of a substance on a living organism. This is essential for developing new drugs and modifying existing ones. The project at Rice used a solution of magnetic nano-particles which grab onto the cells being tested with the developing drug and levitates them in the solution using a magnetic field. This promotes the interactions of the cells and allows for a unique 3-D view which makes them easier to study as they grow and divide. An iPhone that has the app running is simply placed under a 96 well plate containing the cells in the solution and a special lens, then set to take pictures at desired intervals of time. “This literally collects about 100,000 data points during a 12-hour, overnight experiment,” explained one the Rice students working on the project. The app then puts the data collected through another analytic program. The end result is an organized array of charts, graphs and time lapse shots which one can look at to get a better understanding of the drug’s toxicity. This new process is expected to save companies tens of millions for each drug. I was interested in this article because I liked the idea of applying something like an iPod which are simple to obtain and use, the applying it to do something complex.

http://news.rice.edu/2013/10/28/have-ipod-will-test-for-drug-toxicity/ 

Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia: a medical breakthrough

Marlie Casseus is a young Haitian girl who has been diagnosed with polyostotic fibrous dysplasia.  This particular disease is a sporadic disorder which affects bones on multiple sites of the skeleton, the bone on these sites are rapidly resorbed and replaced by abnormal fibrous tissue or mechanically abnormal bone. The bony lesions are frequently disfiguring and painful, and depending on the location of the lesion, can lead to disabling fractures, while lesions in the skull can lead to compression of vital structures such as cranial nerves. In present day, there is no cure for the disease, however in Marlie Casseus’s case the removal of the 7kg growth from her face is a true medical breakthrough. The removal was crucial, Marlie had gotten to the point where she couldn’t eat well, talk well, see well, and the list goes on. It took 17 procedures but eventually the team of doctors lead by Dr. Jesus Gomez were able to remove the growth from both sides of the face and replace facial parts. It is considered one of the most successful operations to date. 

I chose this article because cases like those of Marlie Casseus are not only inspirational for people that may have a kind of life threatening or facial diseases, but it as well gives a sense of optimism for the world of medicine. The work that the team of doctors put into for this young girl is incredible, they managed to not only save her life but help her live it as well. 

The link to this article is:

http://latestmedicalbreakthroughs.com/information/marlie-casseus-a-medical-breakthrough/

Contact Lenses: Silicone Hydrogels

Contact lenses that have the ability to maintain a continuous clear film, sustain normal hydration, high permeability to oxygen and ion movement, and are comfortable for the user are in high demand within the ocular environment. Oxygen permeability in a contact lens is derived from the air, due to the fact that the cornea has no direct blood supply; reduced oxygen from contact lenses can result in serious eye irritation and sight threatening complications.

Current work in Bio-materials is focusing on utilizing silicone hydrogels as the design of contact lenses, due to the high oxygen permeability of polysiloxanes, along with their hydrophobic and rubbery characteristics. Through incorporating siloxane groups with large R groups into a polymer network, significant free volume can be created, to allow a high permeability to oxygen and gases. In addition, PDMS, a siloxane group with an n value greater than 5, serves as cross linking agents, linking the polymer chains together, which increases the modulus of the hydrogel proportionally to the number of cross links and the distance between cross links. 

This topic is interesting to me because I am currently conducting research in a Bio-materials lab on producing tear bacteria resistant silicone contact lenses through developing and utilizing a standard formulation of silicone contact lenses and then applying protein resistant polymer coatings to the hydrogel. 

Link to the paper: 

Contact Lenses: Silicone Hydrogels Paul C. Nicolson, Jurgen Vogt, Encyclopedia of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/E-EBBE-120007274#.UnHaDflDW6w

There May Be Hope For Paralyzed Patients

Neuroscientist Susan Harkema is working on a project that could potentially give paralyzed people a chance to be able to walk again. Using electrical stimulation to awaken the spinal, Harkema's first subject was able to improve so far as to gain bladder control, bowel control, and sexual functions. All 3 of the subjects were able to stand but the results have not been revealed as it is too soon to tell. Harkema is working on getting consistent results and not just results in one subject.

There are beliefs floating around that the brain only provides higher level commands for major functions, such as walking. Then the nerve bundles in the spinal cord takes over the detail oriented movements in our body. After an accident, the pathway that allows signal from the brain to go to the neurons in the spinal cord is damaged. These neural bundles are still intact but with no signal from the brain, movement in the legs and lower body is not possible. Stimulating the spinal cord with electrical signal could possibly cause paralyzed people to move without any signal from the brain.

These experiments are especially difficult to perform due to a couple of different reasons. First, there are about 4.3 x10^7 different possible electrode patterns to try. There is no way to test all the different combinations; the amount of time required to test is beyond a subject's life span. Another complication is the process of which the experiment happens. Safety precautions have to come in to play including turning the field back to 0 after every test, which disrupts the cycle because everything has to start over. A trial could be on the verge of producing results, but with this process, systems in the body will "reset".

I find this article to be interesting because there are so many cut throat projects being conducted and advances in the health field are taking place everyday. Some projects like these might yield results that could ultimately be put into a wider spectrum and others might not yield any results. It's just the fact that there are so many researchers out there doing research on something so innovative and something so unheard of that amazes me.

Below is the link to the article:

http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/spinal-stimulation-gets-paralyzed-patients-moving

Vascular Wall Shear Stress: Basic Principles and Methods

This article by Papaioannou and Stefanadis deals with the relationship between shear stress/rate and other  physiological aspects of blood vessels. These aspects range from blood viscosity, vessel diameter, vessel wall thickness, and vascular endothelium. Papaioannou and Stefanadis began by describing the basic definition of stress( the internal distribution of forces inside the body that react and balance to external forces applied on them) and strain( the change in physical form of a body as a result of external forces). They also discussed the existence of hemodynamic conditions that result in two types of stress on vessel walls( circumfrerential stress and shear stress). Shear stress is caused by friction of blood flow against the endothelial cells lining the inner membrane of blood vessels, known as the vascular endothelium(arterial). The paper was considering blood to be a Newtonian fluid or having a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate.  The basic relationship between shear stress levels and vessel diameter and wall thickness is that at high levels of shear stress the vessel diameter increases as well as an thickening of the vessel wall, this is so that the vessel regains the accurate level of shear stress, but as the shear stress decreases there is a reduction of vessel diameter and leads to intima-media hyperplasia. The why of this vessel adaptation is being research but there are some theories. One theory is that of cellular mechanoreceptors that are activated by shear stress factors and then prompts the cell to release agents with direct or in-direct antithrombotic properties ( ex. NO). The article discussed two possible models for the mechanotransduction of signaling: 1) a localized model: the mechanoreceptors are located on the cell membrane such as calcium, potassium, or sodium channels that respond to the change in shear stress, or 2) decentralized model: the external forces act on the cell surface and the cytoskeleton of the cell responds through integrines. Papaioannou and Stefanadis also discuss possible physiological conditions that occur from low levels of shear stress as well, such as Atherogenesis, Grafts, Aneurysms, and in-stent restenosis. I found this article interesting because it described some physiological features of the cell receptor character and the role of cell signaling that we learned about in lecture. It also pertains to a research project I am working in close proximity at the moment concerning cellular adaptation to change in shear stress and flow oscillation.  

http://www.hellenicjcardiol.org/archive/full_text/2005/1/2005_1_9.pdf

Spinal Stimulation Helps Paralyzed Patients Stand

Neuroscientist, Susan Harkema is testing the possibility of using electrical stimulation of the spinal cord to allow paralyzed patients to walk on their own again. After success with one patient being able to stand up and have better control over voluntary muscles (link below), Harkema began an ongoing study with four more patients using the same method. A neurostimulation system of electrodes are surgically implanted into the patient's lower spinal cord and different combinations electrodes and frequencies are tested for the desired outcome of being able to walk. Electrical activity in the muscles is measured with electromyography. It is believed that previous studies with electrical stimulation for paralyzed patients have overwhelmed the neurons in the spinal cord. Harkema describes her approach as more of a "hearing aid" for the spine. The idea is that the spinal cord must be able to process sensory feedback in order to properly control movement. In the specific story of one patient found in the news article below, a bungee cord supported him while he went through the electrical stimulation tests. They found that the tests were actually more successful when the bungee cord was removed because the muscles actually became engaged and could send sensory signals about pressure and balance back to the spinal cord. This breakthrough has a lot of promise for the world of biomedical engineering and for individuals with paralysis. It is also relevant to our class right now as it relates neurology and muscle movement.

News Article
Literature

Light Detection in Blind Patients

http://www.news-medical.net/news/20131029/Study-Light-enhances-brain-activity-during-cognitive-task-even-in-blind-people.aspx?page=2

This study was done through the University of Montreal.   Three blind patients were asked to say whether a blue light was on, and each answered correctly more often than chance would allow (I was skeptical of this assessment in the reading however).  The researchers believe a unique photoreceptor, different from rods and cones, in the retina of the eye allows for this detection.

The patients were then asked to perform a task that required using their working memory.  Auditory information was given to them.  At the same time, these patients were being exposed to blue light.  This blue light exposure activated certain areas of the brain necessary to perform the task.  The researchers believe that this is further evidence that light (even when we do not consciously perceive it) is important to attentiveness.

I found this article interesting because of the distinction between sensation and perception.  The patients did not actively perceive the blue light, yet the body sensed it and was able to use this information at a subconscious level.  It is amazing to think about all that our mind does without us even knowing about it.

Small Wireless Pacemaker Fits Inside the Heart

A new biomedical device company in California called Nanostim, which was recently acquired by St. Jude Medical, has developed a wireless pacemaker that is significantly smaller than any other pacemaker on the market. It is the size and shape of a AAA battery and can be inserted into the heart through the femoral artery using a catheter where it provides direct stimulation. This is a huge advance from the slightly more invasive procedure required to insert currently used pacemakers.The lack of required leads is also promising because leads are where contemporary pacemakers tend to fail. The pacemakers last about 9 to 13 years and can be removed and replaced noninvasively.  These new pacemakers have been approved for market in Europe, but have not yet been submitted for approval by the US FDA.

This article caught my attention because pacemakers are such a commonly required device, this advancement could affect a large population. If this device has less incidence of malfunction, many lives could be saved. Also, I found it interesting that the pacemaker would actually be inside of the heart rather than externally attached to leads. I would think this would adversely affect the volume of blood that could be pumped into the heart.

http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/biomedical/devices/teeny-tiny-pacemaker-fits-inside-the-heart

i, Totbot

There's long been a strong impulse in the AI community to emulate human development. Some researchers go so far as to begin at the primordial soup of life's proto-existence. Evolution has also been seen mirrored in the spread and adaptation of new technology, with a boom in diversity and complexity at the nascence of telecommunications and later, the internet. The more connected we are--the more we work as a cohesive unit--the greater our ability to grow, adapt, and flourish. 

Enter the nascence of Opensource technology. Here, today, on this very screen, with a click of this link <http://cbcl.mit.edu/jmutch/cns/>, exists a cortical network simulator. It's a brain. A basic brain, but a brain nonetheless. Whatever a person's robo-visions, be they i, Robot nightmarescapes or questionablecontent singularity-loving dreamlands, the first step to their realization is here. And free. 

This man builds babies, who learn and develop of their own accord: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmoXByLkK14>. This man builds robots that must learn what they are and how to move, and life-soup, stocked with proto-machines that evolve and replicate of their own accord <http://www.ted.com/talks/hod_lipson_builds_self_aware_robots.html>.

Michio Kaku is an ever-present, clear and sonorous voice amidst the din of excitement and fear that circulates these issues. Here, he speaks to some rational concepts at the heart of the robotics era: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPVOPzYiCeg>. 

So, where does the scientific community go from here? 3D printers are here. Arduino is here. The CNS is here. The HPB (human brain project, stay tuned for an article to come) is well under way. The technology is accessible. Maker communities exist as the nodes for connection among bright minds and talented hands. Is American cultured prepared for the singularity? If not, what can today's students do to ensure success and wellbeing in the post-singularity world?

Khoa Tran - A gold nanoparticle platform for the delivery of functional microRNAs into cancer cells

A gold nanoparticle platform for the delivery of functional microRNAs into cancer cells

A research team of Department of Biology & Biochemistry at University of Houston as developed a pathway to deliver miRNAs into cancer cells by using gold nanoparticles. Using the biocompatible properties of gold element, the team carried out the experiment of combining a gold nanoparticle with miRNA and delivering them through the cell membrane by endocytosis. Effectively applying gold’s unique physicochemical properties such as shape, surface area, amphiphilicity, biocompatibility and safe carrier capabilities into the miRNA delivering, the research team achieved a very high percentage (98%) of living cells after the endocytosis. Adding to the success, cells do not need to take time to recover which may delay and affect the efficiency of this method. Next, there are two pathways in this experiment, miR-stemloop pathway and miR-duplex pathway. In miR-stemloop pathway, the combination includes one AuNP , which is make positive in order to bind with other components, a few miR-stemloops and S-PEG strings. This combination goes through the membrane by endocytosis, then miR-stemloops are released from the endosome, binds to dicers, and be taken into the AGOs. These AGOs carry the new RNA code from the miR-stemloop and synthesis lysosomes with shorter half-life. As a result, lysosomes are self-broken down in a short period of time, release strong digestive enzyme into the cytoplasm of cancer cells and destroy them. Finally, the experiment came out successfully with a high but fair cost and thus added a new subtle medical method to fight cancer using gold nanoparticles delivery and synthesized miRNAs.

I got interested in this article with a very non-professional and funny way. Back in my country—Vietnam, a developing country—when I was little, I used to hear now and then people told each other that if you drank fine crunched gold, it would cure asthma and cancer like a magical medicine. Of course they believed in it superstitiously and without any scientific proof. Therefore, it made a very odd and funny situation when I ran into this article and found out that very smart scientists and doctors used the same method—well, considering in some general “aspects”—and proved that this “magical medicine” actually working. 

http://www.sciencedirect.com.lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/science/article/pii/S0142961212011441